Differential susceptibility to parenting influences on reactive and proactive aggression: The role of testosterone and cortisol in children.

This study explored whether cortisol and testosterone moderate the effect of parenting style on children's aggressive behavior, in accordance with the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility theory; i.e., whether children are vulnerable to negative parenting styles (diathesis-stress) or, in addition to this vulnerability, also benefit more from positive parenting (differential susceptibility). The sample group comprised 279 eight-year-old children (154 boys and 125 girls) from Spain. Aggressive behavior was assessed using the "Reactive and Proactive Questionnaire" (RPQ) and parenting styles were measured using the "Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire" (PSDQ). Additionally, three saliva samples were collected to measure testosterone and cortisol levels, which were analyzed using ELISA. The results revealed that girls' high testosterone levels moderated the association between mothers' authoritarian parenting style and reactive aggression. This result can be explained by the differential susceptibility model. None of the interactions were statistically significant in boys' proactive aggression. The study emphasizes the importance of investigating biological and social factors that may influence aggressive behavior.

Fathering and children's relational aggression: Moderating effects of children's temperament and gender.

In this exploratory study, we analyzed the contribution of fathering to relational aggression (RA) in middle childhood and the moderating role of children's temperament and gender. Participants (N = 234; 46% girls) were attending public elementary school (mean age = 8.15; SD = 1.23) in middle-class neighborhoods in two Spanish cities. Fathers provided information about their parenting practices using the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire, parents gave data on their child's temperament using the Temperament in Middle Childhood Questionnaire and children provided information about their peers' aggressive behavior using the Mini Direct Indirect Aggression Inventory. Fathering dimensions considered were Authoritative Cold, Authoritative Warm, Physical Punishment, and Insecurity; temperament dimensions considered were negative affect (NA), effortful control (EC), activity (AC), and shyness (SH). Gender, fathering, and temperament dimensions additively accounted for a significant proportion of the variance observed in RA. Several significant interactions suggested that the effect of fathering on RA was moderated by temperament and, in some cases, by children's gender. NA increased the potential risk of Authoritative Cold fathering (CF) and, in boys only, of Insecure fathering, while EC potentiated the protective effect of Authoritative-Warm fathering and, in boys only, buffered the risk effect of CF. SH buffered the risk effect of CF and decreased the protective effect of Authoritative Warm fathering on RA. Lastly, AC also buffered the risk effect of CF on RA. Results are discussed in light of the protective or the vulnerability role of temperament and in relation to models that explain sensitivity differences to environmental contexts.

Parental Corporal Punishment and Peer Victimization in Middle Childhood: A Sex-Moderated Mediation Model of Aggression.

There is a peak in peer victimization during middle childhood, with multiple negative consequences. Parental use of corporal punishment and child aggression are the most widely studied predictors of this phenomenon. The aim of the present study was to analyze whether parental use of corporal punishment affects peer victimization through child aggression. This mediation model was explored for both mothers and fathers and for both physical and relational forms of aggression and peer victimization. Furthermore, we also analyzed whether the mediation models were moderated by the sex of the child. Participants were 234 third graders (46% girls). Child aggression and victimization were measured by peers using the Mini Direct Indirect Aggression Inventory. Independent measures of mother's and father's use of corporal punishment were obtained from a PCA of items from the Parental Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ). Conditional process modeling was carried out using a macro for SPSS developed by Hayes (2013). Results indicated that aggression mediated the relation of parental corporal punishment to peer victimization. Some interesting moderating effects of sex in this mediation model were found; specifically, physical, and relational aggression mediated the relation of maternal corporal punishment to peer victimization only in boys. Few studies to date have addressed the connection between aggressive behavior and peer victimization as outcomes of corporal punishment, taking into consideration the role of parent's and child's sex, and both physical and relational forms of aggression and victimization during childhood.